Behrman, J. R. & Rosenzweig, M. R. Returns to birthweight. Rev. Econ. Stat. 86, 586–601 (2004).
Google Scholar
Black, S. E., Devereux, P. J. & Salvanes, K. G. From the cradle to the labor market? The effect of birth weight on adult outcomes. Q. J. Econ. 122, 409–439 (2007).
Google Scholar
Case, A., Fertig, A. & Paxson, C. The lasting impact of childhood health and circumstance. J. Health Econ. 24, 365–389 (2005).
Google Scholar
Smith, J. P. The impact of childhood health on adult labor market outcomes. Rev. Econ. Stat. 91, 478–489 (2009).
Google Scholar
Currie, J. Healthy, wealthy, and wise: Socioeconomic status, poor health in childhood, and human capital development. J. Econ. Lit. 47, 87–122 (2009).
Google Scholar
Currie, J. & Almond, D. Human capital development before age five. In Handbook of Labor Economics (eds. Ashenfelter, O. & Card, D.) vol. 4, Part B 1315–1486 (Elsevier, 2011).
Figlio, D., Guryan, J., Karbownik, K. & Roth, J. The effects of poor neonatal health on children’s cognitive development. Am. Econ. Rev. 104, 3921–3955 (2014).
Google Scholar
Bharadwaj, P., Lundborg, P. & Rooth, D.-O. Birth weight in the long run. J. Hum. Resour. 53, 189–231 (2018).
Google Scholar
Lambiris, M. J. et al. Birth weight and adult earnings: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Dev. Orig. Health Dis. 13, 284–291 (2022).
Google Scholar
Karbownik, K. & Wray, A. Lifetime and intergenerational consequences of poor childhood health. J. Hum. Resour. xym (2022).
Google Scholar
Flores, M. & Wolfe, B. L. Childhood health conditions and lifetime labor market outcomes. Am. J. Health Econ. 8, 506–533 (2022).
Google Scholar
Aizer, A. & Currie, J. The intergenerational transmission of inequality: Maternal disadvantage and health at birth. Science 344, 856–861 (2014).
Google Scholar
Bilsteen, J. F., Andresen, J. B., Mortensen, L. H., Hansen, A. V. & Andersen, A.-M.N. Educational disparities in perinatal health in Denmark in the first decade of the 21st century: A register-based cohort study. BMJ Open 8, e023531 (2018).
Google Scholar
Blumenshine, P., Egerter, S., Barclay, C. J., Cubbin, C. & Braveman, P. A. Socioeconomic disparities in adverse birth outcomes: A systematic review. Am. J. Prev. Med. 39, 263–272 (2010).
Google Scholar
Case, A., Lubotsky, D. & Paxson, C. Economic status and health in childhood: The origins of the gradient. Am. Econ. Rev. 92, 1308–1334 (2002).
Google Scholar
Coffey, D., Khera, R. & Spears, D. Mothers’ social status and children’s health: Evidence from joint households in rural India. Demography 59, 1981–2002 (2022).
Google Scholar
Cook, B., Wayne, G. F., Valentine, A., Lessios, A. & Yeh, E. Revisiting the evidence on health and health care disparities among the Roma: A systematic review 2003–2012. Int. J. Public Health. 58, 885–911 (2013).
Google Scholar
Costa, D. L. Race and pregnancy outcomes in the twentieth century: A long-term comparison. J. Econ. Hist. 64, 1056–1086 (2004).
Google Scholar
Hajdu, T., Kertesi, G. & Kézdi, G. Health differences at birth between Roma and non-Roma children in Hungary: Long-run trends and decomposition. Popul. Dev. Rev. 45, 631–657 (2019).
Google Scholar
Martinson, M. L. & Reichman, N. E. Socioeconomic inequalities in low birth weight in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia. Am. J. Public Health. 106, 748–754 (2016).
Google Scholar
Mehta, N. K., Lee, H. & Ylitalo, K. R. Child health in the United States: Recent trends in racial/ethnic disparities. Soc. Sci. Med. 95, 6–15 (2013).
Google Scholar
Oberg, C., Colianni, S. & King-Schultz, L. Child health disparities in the 21st century. Curr. Probl. Pediatr. Adolesc. Health Care. 46, 291–312 (2016).
Google Scholar
Pillas, D. et al. Social inequalities in early childhood health and development: A European-wide systematic review. Pediatr. Res. 76, 418–424 (2014).
Google Scholar
Szabó, L. & Boros, J. Socio-economic differences among low-birthweight infants in Hungary. Results of the Cohort ‘18—Growing Up in Hungary birth cohort study. PLoS One 18, e0291117 (2023).
Google Scholar
Heckman, J. J. Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children. Science 312, 1900–1902 (2006).
Google Scholar
Karoly, L. A., Kilburn, M. R. & Cannon, J. S. Early Childhood Interventions: Proven Results, Future Promise (Rand Corporation, 2006).
Chetty, R., Hendren, N. & Katz, L. F. The effects of exposure to better neighborhoods on children: New evidence from the moving to opportunity experiment. Am. Econ. Rev. 106, 855–902 (2016).
Google Scholar
Dherani, M. et al. Indoor air pollution from unprocessed solid fuel use and pneumonia risk in children aged under five years: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Bull. World Health Organ. 86, 390-398C (2008).
Google Scholar
Fullerton, D. G., Bruce, N. & Gordon, S. B. Indoor air pollution from biomass fuel smoke is a major health concern in the developing world. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 102, 843–851 (2008).
Google Scholar
Fink, G., Günther, I. & Hill, K. The effect of water and sanitation on child health: Evidence from the demographic and health surveys 1986–2007. Int. J. Epidemiol. 40, 1196–1204 (2011).
Google Scholar
Duflo, E., Greenstone, M., Guiteras, R. & Clasen, T. Toilets can work: Short and medium run health impacts of addressing complementarities and externalities in water and sanitation. gno (2015).
Padhi, B. K. et al. Risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes among women practicing poor sanitation in rural India: A population-based prospective cohort study. PLoS Med. 12, e1001851 (2015).
Google Scholar
Freeman, M. C. et al. The impact of sanitation on infectious disease and nutritional status: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 220, 928–949 (2017).
Google Scholar
Geruso, M. & Spears, D. Neighborhood sanitation and infant mortality. Am. Econ. J. Appl. Econ. 10, 125–162 (2018).
Google Scholar
Harville, E. W. & Rabito, F. A. Housing conditions and birth outcomes: The National Child Development Study. Environ. Res. 161, 153–157 (2018).
Google Scholar
Alsan, M. & Goldin, C. Watersheds in Child mortality: The role of effective water and sewerage infrastructure, 1880–1920. J. Polit. Econ. 127, 586–638 (2019).
Google Scholar
Headey, D. & Palloni, G. Water, sanitation, and child health: Evidence from subnational panel data in 59 countries. Demography 56, 729–752 (2019).
Google Scholar
Lee, K. K. et al. Adverse health effects associated with household air pollution: A systematic review, meta-analysis, and burden estimation study. Lancet Glob. Health. 8, e1427–e1434 (2020).
Google Scholar
Murray, C. J. L. et al. Global burden of 87 risk factors in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet 396, 1223–1249 (2020).
Google Scholar
Kinney, P. L. et al. Prenatal and postnatal household air pollution exposures and pneumonia risk: Evidence from the Ghana randomized air pollution and health study. Chest 160, 1634–1644 (2021).
Google Scholar
Wolf, J. et al. Effectiveness of interventions to improve drinking water, sanitation, and handwashing with soap on risk of diarrhoeal disease in children in low-income and middle-income settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 400, 48–59 (2022).
Google Scholar
Younger, A., Alkon, A., Harknett, K., Jean Louis, R. & Thompson, L. M. Adverse birth outcomes associated with household air pollution from unclean cooking fuels in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Environ. Res. 204, 112274 (2022).
Google Scholar
Zhu, L., Liao, H. & Burke, P. J. Household fuel transitions have substantially contributed to child mortality reductions in China. World Dev. 164, 106174 (2023).
Google Scholar
Frostad, J. J. et al. Mapping development and health effects of cooking with solid fuels in low-income and middle-income countries, 2000–18: A geospatial modelling study. Lancet Glob. Health 10, e1395–e1411 (2022).
Google Scholar
Prüss-Ustün, A. et al. Burden of disease from inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene for selected adverse health outcomes: An updated analysis with a focus on low- and middle-income countries. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health. 222, 765–777 (2019).
Google Scholar
Wolf, J. et al. Burden of disease attributable to unsafe drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene in domestic settings: A global analysis for selected adverse health outcomes. Lancet 401, 2060–2071 (2023).
Google Scholar
Stoner, O. et al. Household cooking fuel estimates at global and country level for 1990 to 2030. Nat. Commun. 12, 5793 (2021).
Google Scholar
WHO & UNICEF. Progress on Household Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene 2000–2020: Five Years into the SDGs (WHO and UNICEF, 2021).
Brown, J. et al. The effects of racism, social exclusion, and discrimination on achieving universal safe water and sanitation in high-income countries. Lancet Glob. Health 11, e606–e614 (2023).
Google Scholar
Deitz, S. & Meehan, K. Plumbing poverty: Mapping hot spots of racial and geographic inequality in U.S. household water insecurity. Ann. Am. Assoc. Geograph. 109, 1092–1109 (2019).
Ferguson, L. et al. Exposure to indoor air pollution across socio-economic groups in high-income countries: A scoping review of the literature and a modelling methodology. Environ. Int. 143, 105748 (2020).
Google Scholar
Mueller, J. T. & Gasteyer, S. The widespread and unjust drinking water and clean water crisis in the United States. Nat. Commun. 12, 3544 (2021).
Google Scholar
Anthonj, C., Setty, K. E., Ezbakhe, F., Manga, M. & Hoeser, C. A systematic review of water, sanitation and hygiene among Roma communities in Europe: Situation analysis, cultural context, and obstacles to improvement. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health. 226, 113506 (2020).
Google Scholar
Filčák, R. & Škobla, D. Sanitation infrastructure at the systemic edge: Segregated Roma settlements and multiple health risks in Slovakia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 18, 6079 (2021).
Google Scholar
Kósa, K., Daragó, L. & Ádány, R. Environmental survey of segregated habitats of Roma in Hungary: A way to be empowering and reliable in minority research. Eur. J. Public Health. 21, 463–468 (2011).
Google Scholar
Bíró, A., Hajdu, T., Kertesi, G. & Prinz, D. Life expectancy inequalities in Hungary over 25 years: The role of avoidable deaths. Popul. Stud. 75, 443–455 (2021).
Google Scholar
Mackenbach, J. P. et al. Trends in health inequalities in 27 European countries. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 115, 6440–6445 (2018).
Google Scholar
Hegedüs, J. Hungary: Ideas and plans without political will. In Social Housing in Transition Countries (eds. Hegedüs, J., Lux, M. & Teller, N.) 180–194 (Routledge, 2013).
Hegedüs, J. Social housing in Hungary. In Social Housing in Europe 205–221 (Wiley, 2014). dqy
Causa, O. & Pichelmann, J. Should I Stay or Should I Go? Housing and Residential Mobility across OECD Countries. (2020) jws
Sánchez, A. C. & Andrews, D. Residential mobility and public policy in OECD countries. OECD J. Econ. Stud. 2011, (2011).
Behrman, R. E. Preventing low birth weight: A pediatric perspective. J. Pediatr. 107, 842–854 (1985).
Google Scholar
Birth, P. Causes, Consequences, and Prevention (National Academies Press, 2007).
Allinson, J. P. et al. Early childhood lower respiratory tract infection and premature adult death from respiratory disease in Great Britain: A national birth cohort study. Lancet 401, 1183–1193 (2023).
Google Scholar
Pedersen, M. et al. Ambient air pollution and pregnancy-induced hypertensive disorders. Hypertension 64, 494–500 (2014).
Google Scholar
van den Hooven, E. H. et al. Air pollution exposure and markers of placental growth and function: The generation R study. Environ. Health Perspect. 120, 1753–1759 (2012).
Google Scholar
Ghosh, R. et al. Ambient and household PM2.5 pollution and adverse perinatal outcomes: A meta-regression and analysis of attributable global burden for 204 countries and territories. PLoS Med. 18, e1003718 (2021).
Google Scholar
Molnár, Á., Ádány, R., Ádám, B., Gulis, G. & Kósa, K. Health impact assessment and evaluation of a Roma housing project in Hungary. Health Place 16, 1240–1247 (2010).
Google Scholar
Peat, J. K., Dickerson, J. & Li, J. Effects of damp and mould in the home on respiratory health: A review of the literature. Allergy 53, 120–128 (1998).
Google Scholar
Mendell, M. J., Mirer, A. G., Cheung, K., Tong, M. & Douwes, J. Respiratory and allergic health effects of dampness, mold, and dampness-related agents: A review of the epidemiologic evidence. Environ. Health Perspect. 119, 748–756 (2011).
Google Scholar
Ingham, T. et al. Damp mouldy housing and early childhood hospital admissions for acute respiratory infection: A case control study. Thorax 74, 849–857 (2019).
Google Scholar
Pénzes, J., Pásztor, I. Z., Tátrai, P. & Kóti, T. Roma population in Hungary—Spatial distribution and its temporal changes. DETUROPE Cent. Eur. J. Reg. Dev. Tour. 11, 138–159 (2019).
Janky, B. The income situation of Gypsy families. In Social Report 2004 (eds. Kolosi, T., Vukovich, G. & Tóth, I. G.) (TÁRKI, 2004).
Kertesi, G. & Kézdi, G. The Roma/Non-Roma test score gap in Hungary. Am. Econ. Rev. 101, 519–525 (2011).
Google Scholar
Kertesi, G. & Kézdi, G. Roma employment in Hungary after the post-communist transition. Econ. Transit. 19, 563–610 (2011).
Google Scholar
Váradi, L. Youths Trapped in Prejudice: Hungarian Adolescents’ Attitudes towards the Roma (Springer Science & Business, 2014).
Hajdu, T., Kertesi, G. & Kézdi, G. Inter-ethnic friendship and hostility between Roma and non-Roma students in Hungary: The role of exposure and academic achievement. B. E. J. Econ. Anal. Policy. 19, (2019).
Hajdu, T., Kertesi, G. & Kézdi, G. Ethnic segregation and inter-ethnic relationships in Hungarian schools. Educ. J. Res. Debate 4, (2021).
Scharle, Á. Schooling and employment of Roma youth: Changes between 2011 and 2016. In The Hungarian Labor market 2020 (eds. Fazekas, K., Elek, P. & Hajdu, T.) 121–125 (Centre for Economic and Regional Studies-Institute of Economics, Budapest, 2021).
Pope, D. P. et al. Risk of low birth weight and stillbirth associated with indoor air pollution from solid fuel use in developing countries. Epidemiol. Rev. 32, 70–81 (2010).
Google Scholar
Morisaki, N., Kawachi, I., Oken, E. & Fujiwara, T. Social and anthropometric factors explaining racial/ethnical differences in birth weight in the United States. Sci. Rep. 7, 46657 (2017).
Google Scholar
Lhila, A. & Long, S. What is driving the black–white difference in low birthweight in the US?. Health Econ. 21, 301–315 (2012).
Google Scholar
Juárez, S. P. & Hjern, A. The weight of inequalities: Duration of residence and offspring’s birthweight among migrant mothers in Sweden. Soc. Sci. Med. 175, 81–90 (2017).
Google Scholar
Aradhya, S., Katikireddi, S. V. & Juárez, S. P. Immigrant ancestry and birthweight across two generations born in Sweden: An intergenerational cohort study. BMJ Glob. Health 7, e007341 (2022).
Google Scholar
Harding, S., Santana, P., Cruickshank, J. K. & Boroujerdi, M. Birth weights of black african babies of migrant and nonmigrant mothers compared with those of babies of European mothers in Portugal. Ann. Epidemiol. 16, 572–579 (2006).
Google Scholar
Štípková, M. Immigrant disadvantage or the healthy immigrant effect? Evidence about low birth weight differences in the Czech Republic. Eur. J. Public Health. 26, 662–666 (2016).
Google Scholar
Singh, G. K. & Yu, S. M. Adverse pregnancy outcomes: Differences between US- and foreign-born women in major US racial and ethnic groups. Am. J. Public Health. 86, 837–843 (1996).
Google Scholar
Diez Roux, A. V. & Mair, C. Neighborhoods and health. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1186, 125–145 (2010).
Google Scholar
Ellen, I. G., Mijanovich, T. & Dillman, K.-N. Neighborhood effects on health: Exploring the links and assessing the evidence. J. Urban Aff. 23, 391–408 (2001).
Google Scholar
Shaw, M. Housing and public health. Annu. Rev. Public Health. 25, 397–418 (2004).
Google Scholar
Bruckner, T. A. & Catalano, R. Selection in utero and population health: Theory and typology of research. SSM Popul. Health. 5, 101–113 (2018).
Google Scholar
Almond, D. & Currie, J. Killing me softly: The fetal origins hypothesis. J. Econ. Perspect. 25, 153–172 (2011).
Google Scholar